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The word ''socialism'' refers to a broad range of theoretical and historical socio-economic systems, and has also been used by many political movements throughout history to describe themselves and their goals, generating numerous types of socialism. Different self-described socialists have used the term ''socialism'' to refer to different things, such as an economic system, a type of society, a philosophical outlook, a collection of moral values and ideals, or even a certain kind of human character. Some definitions of socialism are very vague,〔Boyle, James. ''"What is Socialism?"'', The Shakespeare Press, 1912. pp. 35. Boyle quotes Pierrerismo Joseph Proudhon as stating that socialism is "every aspiration towards the amelioration of society", and then admitting that, under this definition, "we are all socialists."〕 while others are so specific that they only include a small minority of the things that have been described as "socialism" in the past. There have been numerous political movements which called themselves socialist under some definition of the term; this article attempts to list them all. Some of these interpretations are mutually exclusive, and all of them have generated debates over the true meaning of socialism. == Early interpretations == The word ''socialism'' was coined in the 1830s, and it was first used to refer to philosophical or moral beliefs rather than any specific political views. For example, Alexandre Vinet, who claimed to have been the first person to use the term, defined socialism simply as "the opposite of individualism".〔Cort, John C. ''"Christian socialism"''. Orbis Books, New York, 1988. pp. 355.〕 Robert Owen also viewed socialism as a matter of ethics, though he used it with a slightly more specific meaning, to refer to the view that human society can and should be improved for the benefit of all. In a similar vein, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon claimed that socialism is "every aspiration towards the amelioration of society".〔Boyle, James. ''"What is Socialism?"'', The Shakespeare Press, 1912. pp. 35.〕 In the first half of the 19th century, many writers who described themselves as socialists – and who would be later called "utopian socialists" – wrote down descriptions of what they believed to be the ideal human society. Some of them also created small communities that put their ideals into practice. A constant feature of these ideal societies was social and economic equality. Because the people who proposed the creation of such societies called themselves socialists, the word "socialism" came to refer not only to a certain moral doctrine, but also to a type of egalitarian society based on such a doctrine. Other early advocates of socialism took a more scientific approach by favouring social leveling to create a meritocratic society based upon freedom for individual talent to prosper,〔http://www.fsmitha.com/h3/h44-ph.html〕 such as Count Henri de Saint-Simon, who was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology and believed a socialist society would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism.〔http://www.anu.edu.au/polsci/marx/contemp/pamsetc/socfrombel/sfb_2.htm〕 He advocated the creation of a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work.〔 The key focus of this early socialism was on administrative efficiency and industrialism, and a belief that science was the key to progress.〔''Newman, Michael''. (2005) ''Socialism: A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-280431-6〕 Simon's ideas provided a foundation for scientific economic planning and technocratic administration of society. Other early socialist thinkers, such as Thomas Hodgkin and Charles Hall, based their ideas on David Ricardo's economic theories. They reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated to prices charged by the producer when those commodities were in elastic supply, and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor — the cost of the labor (essentially the wages paid) that was required to produce the commodities. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value.〔http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/utopia.htm〕 These ideas embodied early conceptions of market socialism. After the advent of Karl Marx's theory of capitalism and Scientific socialism, socialism came to refer to ownership and administration of the means of production by the working class, either through the state apparatus or through independent cooperatives. In Marxist theory, socialism refers to a specific stage of social and economic development that will displace capitalism, characterized by coordinated production, public or cooperative ownership of capital, diminishing class conflict and inequalities that spawn from such, and the end of wage-labor with a method of compensation based on the principle of "from each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution".〔http://www.economictheories.org/2008/07/karl-marx-socialism-and-scientific.html〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Types of socialism」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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